The Tiandihui, also known as the Heaven and Earth Association or the Triads, was one of the earliest, largest, and most enduring of the various Chinese secret societies that played a crucial role at decisive junctures in modern Chinese history. The common perception has been that the Tiandihui was founded by Chinese patriots in the seventeenth century for the purpose of overthrowing the Qing (Manchu) dynasty and restoring the Ming (Chinese). This book relates a very different history of the origins of the Tiandihui. Using archives that were made available in Beijing and Taipei in the last decade, the author shows that the Tiandihui was founded not as a political movement but as a mutual aid brotherhood in 1861, a century after the date given by traditional historiography. The seven extant versions of the legend itself appear in English translation as an appendix.